| Citation: |
Shi-zhen Li, Qiu-chen Xu, Mu Liu, Guo-heng Liu, Yi-fan Li, Wen-yang Wang, Xiao-guang Yang, Wei-bin Liu, Yan-fei An, Peng Sun, Tao Liu, Jiang-hui Ding, Qian-chao Li, Chao-gang Fang, 2024. Formation, evolution, reconstruction of black shales and their influence on shale oil and gas resource, China Geology, 7, 551-585. doi: 10.31035/cg2024060
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Formation, evolution, reconstruction of black shales and their influence on shale oil and gas resource
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Abstract
Black shales are important products of material cycling and energy exchange among the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. They are widely distributed throughout geological history and provide essential energy and mineral resources for the development of human society. They also record the evolution process of the earth and improve the understanding of the earth. This review focuses on the diagenesis and formation mechanisms of black shales sedimentation, composition, evolution, and reconstruction, which have had a significant impact on the formation and enrichment of shale oil and gas. In terms of sedimentary environment, black shales can be classified into three types: Marine, terrestrial, and marine-terrestrial transitional facies. The formation processes include mechanisms such as eolian input, hypopycnal flow, gravity-driven and offshore bottom currents. From a geological perspective, the formation of black shales is often closely related to global or regional major geological events. The enrichment of organic matter is generally the result of the interaction and coupling of several factors such as primary productivity, water redox condition, and sedimentation rate. In terms of evolution, black shales have undergone diagenetic evolution of inorganic minerals, thermal evolution of organic matter and hydrocarbon generation, interactions between organic matter and inorganic minerals, and pore evolution. In terms of reconstruction, the effects of fold deformation, uplift and erosion, and fracturing have changed the stress state of black shale reservoirs, thereby having a significant impact on the pore structure. Fluid activity promotes the formation of veins, and have changed the material composition, stress structure, and reservoir properties of black shales. Regarding resource effects, the deposition of black shales is fundamental for shale oil and gas resources, the evolution of black shales promotes the shale oil and gas formation and storage, and the reconstruction of black shales would have caused the heterogeneous distribution of oil and gas in shales. Exploring the formation mechanisms and interactions of black shales at different scales is a key to in-depth research on shale formation and evolution, as well as the key to revealing the mechanism controlling shale oil and gas accumulation. The present records can reveal how these processes worked in geological history, and improve our understanding of the coupling mechanisms among regional geological events, black shales evolution, and shale oil and gas formation and enrichment.
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Keywords:
- Black shales /
- Shale oil and gas /
- Resource effects /
- Sedimentary environment /
- Sedimentary process /
- Organic matter accumulation /
- Diagenetic evolution /
- Thermal evolution /
- Organic matter and inorganic minerals /
- Tectonic reconstruction /
- Oil and gas exploration engineering /
- Veins /
- Fluid activity
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Shi-zhen Li, Qiu-chen Xu, Mu Liu, Guo-heng Liu, Yi-fan Li, Wen-yang Wang, Xiao-guang Yang, Wei-bin Liu, Yan-fei An, Peng Sun, Tao Liu, Jiang-hui Ding, Qian-chao Li, Chao-gang Fang, 2024. Formation, evolution, reconstruction of black shales and their influence on shale oil and gas resource, China Geology, 7, 551-585. doi: 10.31035/cg2024060
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Figure 1.
Paleoecological changes of the deep-time Earth, major biological and geological events, and distribution of black shales.
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Figure 2.
Sedimentary schematic diagram of black shales in different sedimentary environments (modified from Arthur MA and Sageman BB, 1994; Trabucho Alexandre J, 2015).
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Figure 3.
Schematic model of sedimentary processes and sedimentary characteristics of mudstones and shales.
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Figure 4.
Schematic diagram of sedimentary route of black shales (Zou CN et al., 2022). The nutrients provided by three sources - rivers, wind and upwelling - are key determinants of surface water primary productivity. Volcanic and hydrothermal activity can promote the flow of nutrients into oceans and lakes. Suboxic and anoxic bottom water is conducive to the preservation of organic matter.
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Figure 5.
Lithofacies classification of black shales. a–main shales in the United States (Borcovsky D et al., 2017); b–main shales in China (Wu P et al., 2021; He WY et al., 2024; Liu HM, 2018; Li SZ et al., 2023b).
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Figure 6.
Scanning electron microscopy image of shale samples in the LM1-4 graptolite belt of the Longmaxi Formation (after Liu GH et al., 2021). a–g–Sample 1, LGH-1, 2851.00 m, LM4. a–c and d–g correspond to the same graptolite body, respectively. The white arrow indicates the graptolite body, and the yellow arrow indicates quartz. The blue arrow indicates the positive cell tube of the graptolite, and the yellow curve marks the outline of the graptolite body. h–Fig. (b) energy spectrum analysis at the red box position; i–Fig. (e) energy spectrum analysis at the red box position.
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Figure 7.
Scanning electron microscopy image of quartz in black shales.
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Figure 8.
Scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy images of different types of organic matter in black shales.
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Figure 9.
Evolution of minerals, organic matter, and pores during shale diagenetic evolution (modified from Mastalerz M et al., 2013; Pollastro RM, 1993; Zou CN et al., 2022). vol.–volatile; bit.–bituminous; Opal-A–amorphous opal; Opal-CT–crystalline opal.
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Figure 10.
Hydrocarbon generation models of different types of kerogen (modified from Qin JZ and Liu BQ, 2003; Qin JZ and Liu BQ, 2005). a–marine type I kerogen; b–marine type II kerogen; c–lacustrine type III kerogen.
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Figure 11.
Mechanism model of interaction between organic matter and inorganic minerals.
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Figure 12.
Hydrocarbon generation and pore co-evolution process in marine, terrestrial, and transitional black shales thermal simulation experiments, Ro estimated according to thermal simulation heating flow (modified from Guo SB et al., 2019; Yang XG et al., 2020; Wang ZL et al., 2024). a–change of normalized liquid hydrocarbon yield with simulated temperature (liquid hydrocarbon yield at the peak of normalized hydrocarbon generation =1); b–change of pore volume of 0–2 nm with simulated temperature; c–change of pore volume of 2–50 nm with simulated temperature; d–change of pore volume > 50 nm with simulated temperature.
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Figure 13.
Modes of diagenetic fluid activity in shale during tectonic reconstruction.
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Figure 14.
Characteristics of veins in structurally altered black shales, Hedi-1 Well, Dalong Formation, 1288.2 m.