| China Geological Survey Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences | Host |
| Citation: |
Rui-ping Liu, Fei Liu, Ying Dong, Jian-gang Jiao, El-Wardany RM, Li-feng Zhu, 2022. Microplastic contamination in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Current status and transfer mechanisms, China Geology, 5, 421-428. doi: 10.31035/cg2022030
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This paper aims to investigate the present situation and transfer mechanisms of microplastics in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The study surveyed the average abundance of microplastics in sediments. The abundance of microplastics in sediments of lakes from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is 17.22–2643.65 items/kg DW and 0–60.63 items/kg DW based on the data of the Qinghai Lake and the Siying Co Basin. The microplastic abundance in sediments from small and medium lakes is very high compared to that in other areas in the world. Like microplastics in other lakes of the world, those in the lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau mainly include organic polymers PA, PET, PE, and PP and are primarily in the shape of fibers and fragments. The microplastic pollution of lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is affected by natural changes and by human activities, and the concentration of microplastics in lacustrine ecosystems gradually increases through food chains. Furthermore, the paper suggests the relevant administrative departments of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau strengthen waste management while developing tourism and pay much attention to the impacts of microplastics in water environments. This study provides a reference for preventing and controlling microplastic contamination in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
Plastics are low-cost but useful materials and are an important life-changing invention first developed in 1907 (Hossain MS et al., 2020). In 2018, global plastic production reached about 359×106 t (PlasticsEurope, 2019). The extensive use and poor management of plastics cause a large amount of plastic waste to enter water bodies. Plastic pollution attracted public attention as early as 1970 (Ahmad M et al., 2020). After being released into the environment, plastics degrade and can decompose into small fragments with a particle size of <5 mm, which are usually termed microplastics (MPs) (Thompson RC et al., 2004). MPs can cause serious ecological risks because they are easily digested by wild animals and transferred along food chains (Cashman MA et al., 2020). Many studies have reported the existence of mucopolysaccharide polysulfonate in aquatic organisms and their living environments (Hossain MS et al., 2020). Previous studies on MPs have mainly focused on coastal and marine environments. Most of the information available on inland aquatic systems comes from urbanized areas. Even less attention has been paid to remote inland waters (Free CM et al., 2014), where mucopolysaccharide polysulfonate is also expected to occur, given increasing evidence that light mucopolysaccharide polysulfonate can be transported to the remotest places (e.g., cold and high-altitude regions) through the air. MPs have also been found in remote areas such as Mongolia and the Siying Co Basin in China (Zhang K et al., 2016; Free CM et al., 2014). These findings have further proven the rationality of this study to investigate MPs in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, a remote region in China with an average elevation of over 4000 m (Jiang C et al., 2019).
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau lies at the highest altitude in the world and has very limited human activity, yet it hosts the greatest number of high-altitude inland lakes in the world (Fig. 1). Moreover, the saltwater lakes in the plateau account for about half of the total lake area in China (Yuan Y et al., 2016). Lakes connect the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and terrestrial hydrosphere and are the destination of pollutants. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is characterized by high elevation and inhospitable natural conditions and thus is scarcely affected by urbanization. As a result, most of the lakes in the plateau remain at or close to their natural primitive states, making the plateau sensitive to and thus an indicator of changes in global environmental pollution. Studying the distribution and the sources of MPs in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Platea is, therefore, of great significance for the study of global MPs pollution (Liu RP et al., 2021d).
In recent years, human activity has increased in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, posing a potential threat to the ecological security and sustainable development of the plateau. The plastic pollution in Qinghai is mainly caused by the improper discarding of agricultural mulch films and various domestic plastic products, such as beverage bottles, plastic bags, and foam plastics (Liu RP et al., 2021a). Moreover, the investigation conducted and public data issued by relevant departments reveal that the plastic output of Qinghai has increased yearly since 2010. In 2019 alone, the province’s output reached 670200 t (Gong F and Han XR, 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to study the distribution and causes of microplastics in the surface water of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
In this study, the authors investigated the abundance and distribution of MPs in lacustrine sediments in 17 remote saltwater lakes in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 1). These lakes, which serve as MPs sinks, can provide information about the time-dependent pollution levels in lakes more generally (Di M and Wang J, 2018).
The hydrological conditions of the 17 remote saltwater lakes are as follows. More than 40 rivers and creeks, most of which are seasonal, flow into Qinghai Lake. These waterbodies include seven major rivers that account for about 95% of the total water discharged into Qinghai Lake (Xiong X et al., 2018). The Siying Co Basin, including Geren Co, Wuru Co, Mujiu Co, and Siying Co lakes, is the largest inland lake system in northern Tibet. Numerous interconnected rivers and lakes in this basin form a closed water system. Rivers flowing into the Siying Co Basin include the Zagya Zangbo River in the north, the Zagen Zangbo and Ali Zangbo rivers in the west, and the Boques Zangbo River in the east. The four lakes in the basin are connected by rivers that discharge into the basin (Zhang K et al., 2016). The remaining 12 saltwater lakes are located at the confluence of glacial streams in the mountains in or near the Siying Co Basin, except for the Tangqung Co, Chaxiabu Co and Gogen Co lakes nearby a town or village.
In addition, this study further examined the connections between the MPs abundance and environmental factors and discovered that MPs in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are sourced from limited human activities and long-distance atmospheric transport. This finding will enhance the understanding of the pathways of MPs from their sources to remote regions worldwide. This study serves as a valuable reference for further research.
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau covers most of the Qinghai Province and the Tibet Autonomous Region. Qinghai covers a hugely large area and is called “The roof of the world” together with the Tibet Autonomous Region owing to the high altitude. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has a total area of about 2.5×106 km2 and is composed of six landforms, namely the Altun-Qilian mountain plateau, the Qaidam-Hehuang middle-altitude basin, the Qingnan plateau, the eastern Tibet high-mountain valley, the southern Tibet plateau lake basin valley, and the northern Tibet plateau lake basin area. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which is located at the source of many rivers and lakes and has widely distributed glaciers, is characterized by hydrological development in alpine regions and thus is known as the “The water tower of China”. It is the most important ecological functional area in China and even in Southeast Asia, more generally (Wang ZB et al., 2019). The plateau plays an important role in protecting water resources, maintaining biodiversity, and ensuring ecological security in the Three-River-Source Basin (i.e., the home to the headwaters of the Yangtze, Yellow, and Lancang rivers). The basin is critical for ecological security in China (Zhao L et al., 2019), and the Three-River-Source National Park was built in 2021 to protect high-altitude lakes and other natural resources.
The MPs in water and sediment samples were measured separately to determine their abundance. The MP abundance of sediments tends to be expressed in the units of items/kg or items/m2. Therefore, the first step in MP analysis was to unify the units of MP abundance. The conversion between items/kg and items/m 2 can be completed using the equation below.
| Cs(i)=Cs′(i)/(Ds⋅Depth1) | (1) |
where, Cs (i) and Cs′ (i) are the average MPs abundance of lacustrine sediment i in the unit of items/kg and items/m2, respectively; Depth1 is the sampling depth of sediments, which is usually 0–5 cm on the floor of the lake (Dean BY et al., 2018) and was 2 cm in this study; Ds denotes the average density of dry sediments, which is about 1600 kg/m3 (Fettweis et al., 2007). When sampling results are expressed as wet and dry sediments in literature, a wet/dry ratio of 1.25 can be applied for the conversion (Van CL et al., 2015).
It was previously reported that MPs were present in sediments of 17 lakes in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and that their abundance ranged from <1 items/kg DW to 2643.65 items/kg DW (Table 1; Fig. 1). The highest MPs abundance was found in the Yibug Caka Lake, followed by ten small- and medium-sized lakes, namely the Gangtang Co, Angdaer Co, Bobsêr Co, Tangqung Co, Bangkog Co, Dagze Co, Chaxiabu Co, Guojialun Co, Pongcê Co and Gogen Co lakes. The remaining six lakes consisting of the Yangnapeng Co Lake, four lakes in the Siying Co Basin and the first-order stream Qinghai Lake had a relatively low abundance of MPs (from <1 items/kg DW to 23.33±32.38 items/kg DW). The Siying Co Basin and the Qinghai Lake had a lower abundance of MPs than the abovementioned 11 lakes because there is a positive correlation between the MPs abundance of lakes and the lake area. Under the same pollution condition, the dilution capacity of lake water increases with an increase in the lake area. However, the abundance of MPs in some lakes such as the Yangnapeng Co may also be affected by other factors (Table 1).
| No. | First-order stream | Lake | Surface area/km2 | Abundance /(items/kg) | Reference |
| S1 | Siying Co Basin | Siying Co-W | 2391 | 14.08±30.48 | Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| S2 | Siying Co-NE | <1 | |||
| S3 | Siying Co-E | 1.15±1.78 | |||
| S4 | Siying Co-S | <1 | |||
| S5 | Geren Co | 475.9 | 1.05±1.18 | ||
| S6 | Wuru Co | 362.5 | 2.93±3.15 | ||
| S7 | Mujiu Co | 78.1 | <1 | ||
| S8 | Gangtang Co | 15.56 | 406.85±262.18 | Liang T et al., 2021 | |
| S9 | Yibug Caka | 179.89 | 2643.65±1716.25 | ||
| S10 | Tangqung Co | 62.28 | 269.26±371.98 | ||
| S11 | Dagze Co | 298.31 | 507.51±543.06 | ||
| S12 | Chaxiabu Co | 7.96 | 701.89±227.02 | ||
| S13 | Guojialun Co | 83.09 | 185.55±265.56 | ||
| S14 | Pongcê Co | 13.02 | 250.12±412.68 | ||
| S15 | Bangkog Co | 126.11 | 297.39±61.87 | ||
| S16 | Gogen Co | 49.98 | 640.94±157.70 | ||
| S17 | Bobsêr Co | 30.68 | 143.45±268.38 | ||
| S18 | Yangnapeng Co | 17.26 | 17.22±29.66 | ||
| S19 | Angdaer Co | 61.08 | 389.03±505.71 | ||
| S20 | Qinghai Lake | Qinghai Lake-S-1 | 4500 | 14.38±5.13 | Xiong X et al., 2018 |
| S21 | Qinghai Lake-S-2 | 7.7±5.95 | |||
| S22 | Qinghai Lake-S-3 | 12.7±2.95 | |||
| S23 | Qinghai Lake-S-4 | 23.33±32.38 | |||
| S24 | Qinghai Lake-W | 1.25±1.25 | |||
| S25 | Qinghai Lake-N | 4.17±0.95 | |||
| S26 | Qinghai Lake-E | 2.07±1.9 | |||
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In a global context, the 11 lakes in Tibet have substantially lower sediment MPs levels than Lake Onego in Russia, which is the second-largest lake in Europe. However, their sediment MPs levels are still considered high compared to other lakes worldwide (unit: items kg−1 DW) (Table 2). By contrast, the MP abundance in large lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is relatively low and is equivalent to that in Garda Lake, Italy. Just like the MPs in other lakes in the world, the MPs in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau mainly include polymers such as PA, PE, PET, and PP and primarily take the shape of fibers and fragments. As one of the most widely used materials in daily life, PA is usually employed to make textiles such as mosquito nets, clothing, and tents. PE, PET, and PP are also commonly used in modern production and life, including in wear-resistant nylon. It is noteworthy that different researchers tend to use sieves of different mesh sizes to filter MS samples, yet smaller-sized MPs are generally more abundant in sediments, which could impact the data of comparison studies.
| No. | Water body | Country | Abundance of MPs/ (items/kg DW) | Main polymer types | Dominant shapes | Grain size range | References |
| 1 | 17 lakes in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau | China | 143.45–2643.65 (11 lakes); 0–60.63 (Qinghai Lake); <1 – 14.08±30.48 (Siying Co Basin) | PA and PET; PE and PP; PE and PP | Fibers; fibers and fragments; fragments; foams | 0.05–5 mm | Xiong X et al., 2018; Liang T et al., 2021; Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| 2 | Vembanad Lake | India | 6.32±0.644 | LDPE, PS | Film, foam | Not reported | Sruthy S and Ramasamy EV, 2017 |
| 3 | Garda Lake | Italy | 27.7 ± 24.57 | PE, PP, and PS | fragments | <5 mm | Imhof HK et al., 2013 |
| 4 | Dongting Lake | China | 210–520 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.1–10 mm | Hu DF et al., 2020 |
| 5 | Poyang Lake | China | 54–506 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.05–5 mm | Yuan W et al. 2019 |
| 6 | Taihu Lake | China | 11.0–234.6 | PE and PET | Fibers | < 5 mm | Su L et al., 2016 |
| 7 | Red Hills Lake | India | 27 | PE, PP, and PS | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Gopinath K et al., 2020 |
| 8 | Rawal Lake | Pakistan | 104 | PE, PP, PET, and PVC | Fibers and fragments | < 5 mm | Irfan T et al., 2020 |
| 9 | Lake Onego | Russia | 2188.7 ± 1164.4 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.1–5 mm | Zobkov M et al., 2020 |
| 10 | Sassolo Lake | Switzerland | 547 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.125–5 mm | Velasco ADN et al., 2020 |
| 11 | Victoria Lake | Uganda | 0–108 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Egessa R et al., 2020 |
| 12 | Urban Lake | UK | 250–300 | Not reported | Fibers and films | > 0.5 mm | Vaughan R et al., 2017 |
| 13 | Mead Lake | USA | 87.5–1010 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.35–5.6 mm | Baldwin AK et al., 2020 |
| 14 | Renuka Lake | India | 15–632 | PE and PS | fibres and fragments | 0.1–0.2 mm | Kumar A et al., 2021 |
| Notes: Abundance of MPs are standardized items/kg dry weight (DW) in sediments. PE, PP, PS, PET and PVC denote MP polymer polyethylene, polyprorylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyvinyl chloride, respectively. | |||||||
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Studies reveal that the reasons for MPs pollution mainly include hydrodynamic, climatic, and geographical conditions (Kataoka T et al., 2019). The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has a high altitude, inhospitable climatic conditions, and limited impacts on human activities owing to the recent establishment of nature reserves. Therefore, MPs in the plateau may have been transported there by the atmosphere. Studies have shown that wind speed exponentially increases with altitude. There is strong wind all year round in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which is beneficial to the transport and accumulation of MPs from other regions (Yao Z et al., 2018). In recent years, synthetic fibers have been found in dust in the air in urban and suburban areas, which also proves that MPs can be transported by the atmosphere (Dris R et al., 2016). The 11 lakes investigated in this study are small and scarcely suffer the pollution resulting from tourism. Therefore, Liang T et al. (2021) have speculated that this phenomenon may be more indicative of the natural pathways by which MPs are transported to the plateau lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Fig. 2). Kang SC et al. have detected MPs in snow and ice samples from glaciers in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. These MPs are in the shape of fibers, fragments, and films, proving that the MPs in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau undergo both short- and long-distance atmospheric transportation. MPs with a particle size of 100 um mostly originate from local areas, whereas those with a particle size of 1‒10 um are mainly transported for long distances through the atmosphere (Hu T and Zhang WJ, 2021).
Previous studies indicated that the MPs pollution in the Siying Co Basin and the Qinghai Lake is related to levels of local urbanization and population density (Biginagwa FJ et al., 2016). However, the Qinghai Lake area has very few industries and a small resident population. By contrast, it received over one million tourists in 2012, which is more than 10 times its resident population. Because of poor waste management, plastic garbage discarded by tourists contaminated the remote lake.
Lungtas (a type of prayer flags) and tents are MPs sources specific to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Jiang CB et al., 2019). Religious flags, which are mostly made of man-made fabrics, are sometimes burned or discarded during religious activities. Tents used in the area were previously made of animal skins but are now made of plastics.
Agricultural facilities are another main source of MPs in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. For example, in agricultural greenhouses, plastic films are used to keep the soil and plants warm and moist in the Qilian Mountains. Discarded plastics migrate into lakes via the surface runoff of rivers and ditches or via the wind (Feng SS et al., 2021).
The MP content in organisms is closely related to internal and external surroundings. MPs enter lakes directly or indirectly through human activities or the power of nature (i.e., rain, wind, and rivers). Meanwhile, plastic waste can be fragmented into secondary MPs under various conditions. For example, strong ultraviolet radiation can promote the decomposition of MPs (Nel HA et al., 2018). MPs are deposited near or at the bottom of lakes as they migrate with lake currents. With heavy metals, perfluorinated compounds and other pollutants (Cheng Y, 2020; Liu RP et al., 2020, 2021b), they enter groundwater, causing risks to human body (Liu RP et al., 2021c). MPs within a lacustrine ecosystem may enter the bodies of aquatic organisms through predation. The MP compositions in water correlate with specific factors and filter-feeding behaviors (Koelmans AA et al., 2015). The progressive increase in the concentration of pollutants through a food chain is known as biomagnification. MPs have biomagnification effects in a food web. An investigation of MPs in Lake Taihu revealed that the concentration of white plastic in fish samples (16.7%) was much higher than that in sediments (9.3%) or water (1.8%). Aquatic organisms at different nutritional levels are liable to ingest small plastic particles and increase their concentration through food webs. Fig. 2 illustrates MPs migration in a food web in a lacustrine ecosystem. After being discharged into lake water, light MPs generally float at the water surface (Mccormick A et al., 2014), whereas MPs with high specific gravity are deposited (Woodall LC et al., 2014). MPs in water may be ingested by aquatic insects and medium-sized plankton or may become entangled by algae. Fish may directly eat MPs by mistake or may take in aquatic insects and macroplankton that contain MPs (López-Rojo N et al., 2020). In addition, MPs in lacustrine sediments can be ingested by river snails.
It is suggested that the following measures should be taken to reduce the high abundance of MPs in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
First, forbid the production and use of plastic shopping bags and PE agricultural mulch films with a thickness of less than 0.01 mm.
Second, actively research, develop, popularize, and apply alternative products, including those made of degradable green plastic materials.
Third, strengthen the recycling and environmental treatment of plastic waste and avoid the direct incineration or landfill of plastic waste.
Fourth, control the pollution sources of plastic waste and MPs through improving legislation, standards, policies, and measures of plastic waste control and management. Chinese administrative departments at various levels have emphasized plastic management. China’s National Development and Reform Commission and its Ministry of Ecology and Environment jointly issued a plastic pollution control action plan (NDRC [2021] No. 1298) to be implemented during China’s 14th Five-Year Plan in 2021. In 2020, Tibet similarly issued the Implementation Plan for Promoting Plastic Pollution Control in Tibet Autonomous Region, which has effectively guaranteed plastic pollution control in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
Fifth, use advanced technologies to strengthen the monitoring of plastic pollution in key areas, especially around the Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve.
The authors believe that the white pollution in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau will reduce gradually if the above measures are effectively taken.
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study.
(i) The abundance of MPs in sediments in small and medium lakes and large lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is 17.22–2643.65 items/kg DW and 0–60.63 items/kg DW, respectively based on the data from the Qinghai Lake and the Siying Co Basin. It is preliminarily considered that the difference in the above MP abundance is caused by the probable negative correlation between MP abundance and the area of a lake under the same polluted environment.
(ii) Compared to other areas in the world, the MP abundance in sediments in small and medium lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is very high, whereas that in large lakes is relatively low. Like the MPs in other lakes in the world, those in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau mainly include four types of polymers and are primarily in the shape of fibers and fragments.
(iii) The MP pollution in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is affected by high altitude, wind, and human activities, including tourism, farming, and local religious activities. Furthermore, the concentration of MPs in lacustrine ecosystems gradually increases through a food chain.
(iv) This study recommends that the relevant administrative departments of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau strengthen waste management while developing tourism and pay more attention to the impacts of MPs on water environments, and raise source control and public awareness.
Rui-ping Liu and Jian-Gang Jiao wrote this manuscript. Ying Dong, Fei Liu, and Li-Feng Zhu helped Rui-ping Liu conceive the original idea of this study. El-Wardany RM polished this manuscript.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
This study was funded by the survey projects initiated by the Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s Republic of China (DD20189220, DD20211317, DD20211398, 1212011220224, and 121201011000150022), the project of the 2015 Natural Science Basic Research Plan of Shaanxi Province (2015JM4129), the project of 2016 Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (open fund, 310829161128), and the project of 2021 Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (open fund).
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Figures(2)
Tables(2)
Rui-ping Liu, Fei Liu, Ying Dong, Jian-gang Jiao, El-Wardany RM, Li-feng Zhu, 2022. Microplastic contamination in lacustrine sediments in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Current status and transfer mechanisms, China Geology, 5, 421-428. doi: 10.31035/cg2022030
| No. | First-order stream | Lake | Surface area/km2 | Abundance /(items/kg) | Reference |
| S1 | Siying Co Basin | Siying Co-W | 2391 | 14.08±30.48 | Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| S2 | Siying Co-NE | <1 | |||
| S3 | Siying Co-E | 1.15±1.78 | |||
| S4 | Siying Co-S | <1 | |||
| S5 | Geren Co | 475.9 | 1.05±1.18 | ||
| S6 | Wuru Co | 362.5 | 2.93±3.15 | ||
| S7 | Mujiu Co | 78.1 | <1 | ||
| S8 | Gangtang Co | 15.56 | 406.85±262.18 | Liang T et al., 2021 | |
| S9 | Yibug Caka | 179.89 | 2643.65±1716.25 | ||
| S10 | Tangqung Co | 62.28 | 269.26±371.98 | ||
| S11 | Dagze Co | 298.31 | 507.51±543.06 | ||
| S12 | Chaxiabu Co | 7.96 | 701.89±227.02 | ||
| S13 | Guojialun Co | 83.09 | 185.55±265.56 | ||
| S14 | Pongcê Co | 13.02 | 250.12±412.68 | ||
| S15 | Bangkog Co | 126.11 | 297.39±61.87 | ||
| S16 | Gogen Co | 49.98 | 640.94±157.70 | ||
| S17 | Bobsêr Co | 30.68 | 143.45±268.38 | ||
| S18 | Yangnapeng Co | 17.26 | 17.22±29.66 | ||
| S19 | Angdaer Co | 61.08 | 389.03±505.71 | ||
| S20 | Qinghai Lake | Qinghai Lake-S-1 | 4500 | 14.38±5.13 | Xiong X et al., 2018 |
| S21 | Qinghai Lake-S-2 | 7.7±5.95 | |||
| S22 | Qinghai Lake-S-3 | 12.7±2.95 | |||
| S23 | Qinghai Lake-S-4 | 23.33±32.38 | |||
| S24 | Qinghai Lake-W | 1.25±1.25 | |||
| S25 | Qinghai Lake-N | 4.17±0.95 | |||
| S26 | Qinghai Lake-E | 2.07±1.9 | |||
DownLoad:
CSV
| No. | Water body | Country | Abundance of MPs/ (items/kg DW) | Main polymer types | Dominant shapes | Grain size range | References |
| 1 | 17 lakes in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau | China | 143.45–2643.65 (11 lakes); 0–60.63 (Qinghai Lake); <1 – 14.08±30.48 (Siying Co Basin) | PA and PET; PE and PP; PE and PP | Fibers; fibers and fragments; fragments; foams | 0.05–5 mm | Xiong X et al., 2018; Liang T et al., 2021; Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| 2 | Vembanad Lake | India | 6.32±0.644 | LDPE, PS | Film, foam | Not reported | Sruthy S and Ramasamy EV, 2017 |
| 3 | Garda Lake | Italy | 27.7 ± 24.57 | PE, PP, and PS | fragments | <5 mm | Imhof HK et al., 2013 |
| 4 | Dongting Lake | China | 210–520 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.1–10 mm | Hu DF et al., 2020 |
| 5 | Poyang Lake | China | 54–506 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.05–5 mm | Yuan W et al. 2019 |
| 6 | Taihu Lake | China | 11.0–234.6 | PE and PET | Fibers | < 5 mm | Su L et al., 2016 |
| 7 | Red Hills Lake | India | 27 | PE, PP, and PS | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Gopinath K et al., 2020 |
| 8 | Rawal Lake | Pakistan | 104 | PE, PP, PET, and PVC | Fibers and fragments | < 5 mm | Irfan T et al., 2020 |
| 9 | Lake Onego | Russia | 2188.7 ± 1164.4 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.1–5 mm | Zobkov M et al., 2020 |
| 10 | Sassolo Lake | Switzerland | 547 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.125–5 mm | Velasco ADN et al., 2020 |
| 11 | Victoria Lake | Uganda | 0–108 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Egessa R et al., 2020 |
| 12 | Urban Lake | UK | 250–300 | Not reported | Fibers and films | > 0.5 mm | Vaughan R et al., 2017 |
| 13 | Mead Lake | USA | 87.5–1010 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.35–5.6 mm | Baldwin AK et al., 2020 |
| 14 | Renuka Lake | India | 15–632 | PE and PS | fibres and fragments | 0.1–0.2 mm | Kumar A et al., 2021 |
| Notes: Abundance of MPs are standardized items/kg dry weight (DW) in sediments. PE, PP, PS, PET and PVC denote MP polymer polyethylene, polyprorylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyvinyl chloride, respectively. | |||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
| No. | First-order stream | Lake | Surface area/km2 | Abundance /(items/kg) | Reference |
| S1 | Siying Co Basin | Siying Co-W | 2391 | 14.08±30.48 | Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| S2 | Siying Co-NE | <1 | |||
| S3 | Siying Co-E | 1.15±1.78 | |||
| S4 | Siying Co-S | <1 | |||
| S5 | Geren Co | 475.9 | 1.05±1.18 | ||
| S6 | Wuru Co | 362.5 | 2.93±3.15 | ||
| S7 | Mujiu Co | 78.1 | <1 | ||
| S8 | Gangtang Co | 15.56 | 406.85±262.18 | Liang T et al., 2021 | |
| S9 | Yibug Caka | 179.89 | 2643.65±1716.25 | ||
| S10 | Tangqung Co | 62.28 | 269.26±371.98 | ||
| S11 | Dagze Co | 298.31 | 507.51±543.06 | ||
| S12 | Chaxiabu Co | 7.96 | 701.89±227.02 | ||
| S13 | Guojialun Co | 83.09 | 185.55±265.56 | ||
| S14 | Pongcê Co | 13.02 | 250.12±412.68 | ||
| S15 | Bangkog Co | 126.11 | 297.39±61.87 | ||
| S16 | Gogen Co | 49.98 | 640.94±157.70 | ||
| S17 | Bobsêr Co | 30.68 | 143.45±268.38 | ||
| S18 | Yangnapeng Co | 17.26 | 17.22±29.66 | ||
| S19 | Angdaer Co | 61.08 | 389.03±505.71 | ||
| S20 | Qinghai Lake | Qinghai Lake-S-1 | 4500 | 14.38±5.13 | Xiong X et al., 2018 |
| S21 | Qinghai Lake-S-2 | 7.7±5.95 | |||
| S22 | Qinghai Lake-S-3 | 12.7±2.95 | |||
| S23 | Qinghai Lake-S-4 | 23.33±32.38 | |||
| S24 | Qinghai Lake-W | 1.25±1.25 | |||
| S25 | Qinghai Lake-N | 4.17±0.95 | |||
| S26 | Qinghai Lake-E | 2.07±1.9 | |||
| No. | Water body | Country | Abundance of MPs/ (items/kg DW) | Main polymer types | Dominant shapes | Grain size range | References |
| 1 | 17 lakes in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau | China | 143.45–2643.65 (11 lakes); 0–60.63 (Qinghai Lake); <1 – 14.08±30.48 (Siying Co Basin) | PA and PET; PE and PP; PE and PP | Fibers; fibers and fragments; fragments; foams | 0.05–5 mm | Xiong X et al., 2018; Liang T et al., 2021; Zhang K et al., 2016 |
| 2 | Vembanad Lake | India | 6.32±0.644 | LDPE, PS | Film, foam | Not reported | Sruthy S and Ramasamy EV, 2017 |
| 3 | Garda Lake | Italy | 27.7 ± 24.57 | PE, PP, and PS | fragments | <5 mm | Imhof HK et al., 2013 |
| 4 | Dongting Lake | China | 210–520 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.1–10 mm | Hu DF et al., 2020 |
| 5 | Poyang Lake | China | 54–506 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.05–5 mm | Yuan W et al. 2019 |
| 6 | Taihu Lake | China | 11.0–234.6 | PE and PET | Fibers | < 5 mm | Su L et al., 2016 |
| 7 | Red Hills Lake | India | 27 | PE, PP, and PS | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Gopinath K et al., 2020 |
| 8 | Rawal Lake | Pakistan | 104 | PE, PP, PET, and PVC | Fibers and fragments | < 5 mm | Irfan T et al., 2020 |
| 9 | Lake Onego | Russia | 2188.7 ± 1164.4 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.1–5 mm | Zobkov M et al., 2020 |
| 10 | Sassolo Lake | Switzerland | 547 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.125–5 mm | Velasco ADN et al., 2020 |
| 11 | Victoria Lake | Uganda | 0–108 | PE and PP | Fibers | 0.3–5 mm | Egessa R et al., 2020 |
| 12 | Urban Lake | UK | 250–300 | Not reported | Fibers and films | > 0.5 mm | Vaughan R et al., 2017 |
| 13 | Mead Lake | USA | 87.5–1010 | Not reported | Fibers | 0.35–5.6 mm | Baldwin AK et al., 2020 |
| 14 | Renuka Lake | India | 15–632 | PE and PS | fibres and fragments | 0.1–0.2 mm | Kumar A et al., 2021 |
| Notes: Abundance of MPs are standardized items/kg dry weight (DW) in sediments. PE, PP, PS, PET and PVC denote MP polymer polyethylene, polyprorylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyvinyl chloride, respectively. | |||||||
Map showing the distribution of sampling positions of microplastics in the rivers and lakes of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. a‒map showing the distribution of previous sampling points; b‒map showing the scope of remote sensing in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau; c‒ the map of China (The red zone is the study area) .
Migration-transfer patterns and sources of lacustrine MPs in the internal and external ecosystems in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
